Silk Road transmission of the yogo (hourglass drum) types depicted in Dunhuang mural paintings to China, Korea and Japan

The yogo (hourglass drum, literally ‘waist drum’) types have been commonly used in a variety of musical genres in different cultures, particularly in the three countries – China, Korea and Japan. This article focuses on exploring the different types of the hourglass drum referred to the written sources and the currently musical practices: how they were transmitted and used differently among those countries. There are several sources to be traced back to its term and origin. According to Yue Shu (樂書; Book on Music) Vol. 125 written by Chen Yang (陳暘) in the Sung Dynasty, “the yogo types were originated from India (出於南蠻天竺之國也)”. The Nayta Sastra, performing arts manuscript dated to B.C. 2~3rd century in India, confirms this. Reliefs of Ajanta Caves and collections at Sikar Museum, built in the 10th Century in Rajasthan, also support its origin. The hourglass drums of Dunhuang mural painting can be found in the picture of Performing Before Buddhist (佛前舞樂會) portrayed in the Illustration of Pure World (淨土變相圖). f these the percussion instrument can be found in View Wuliangshoujing Disguised Annotations 觀無量壽經變圖 of Cave 127 at Mogao Caves, the Sung and Tang Dynasties and Diangjiazha Tomb (張家閘 317-430 AD) in Gansu, Jiuquan. The oldest sources of the Korea hourglass drum remain in the two relics: one is Gyeyumyeong Amitabha SamjonSamyeonSeoksang (癸酉銘 阿彌陀佛 三尊四面石像; Four Sides Stone Statue of Three Buddhists of Amitabha with Inscription of “Gyeyu Year”), the Unified Silla (673); the other is the real janggu which was excavated at the Isoeng Mountain Fortress (二聖山城) in Hanam City, Gyeonggi Province. The Japanese hourglass drum shown in the relics is the kotsuzumi, the 8th century which is housed in MIHO Museum. It is also found in the painting (855) of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva Statue Halo (觀音菩薩像光背) at the Nigatsu-do (or Hall of the Second Month (二月堂)) of Todai Temple (東大寺). They have been used in Gagaku (Court Music) and Nogaku (能樂; Theatre Music): the hourglasses used in the former are the san-no-tsuzumi and kakko, whereas those used in the latter include the ō-tsuzumi, taiko and ko-tsuzumi . The tsuzumi has been preserved its name and form recorded as the tsuzumi in the old document.